Exploring the Role of Law Enforcement Institutions and Religious Elite in Mitigating Sectarianism in Pakistan: A Case Study of Rawalpindi District (2014 – 2024)
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.55737/rl.v5i1.26128Keywords:
Sectarianism, Rawalpindi, Law Enforcement Agencies, Religious EliteAbstract
Rawalpindi is a densely populated city of Punjab province in Pakistan with approximately two million people of various sectarian groups in the area of 5286 square kilometer. This research aims at understanding the role of cooperation between police officers and religious scholars in mitigating sectarianism in Rawalpindi. The primary objective of this research is to understand the collaboration of law enforcement institutions and religious elite in mitigating sectarianism in Rawalpindi from 2014 to 2024. In order to conduct this research, qualitative research methodology was used. Primary data was collected from semi-structured interviews and secondary sources include online documents, research articles and journal articles etc. Furthermore, the collaborative governance theory explained the cooperation of law enforcement agencies and religious elite in minimizing the sectarian tensions. Though sectarian conflict in Rawalpindi seems to be managed by the efforts of law enforcement agencies and religious elite however, management does not mean resolution. In order to eliminate the sectarian divide completely, tolerance for other sectarian groups and collective as well as consistent efforts by all the stakeholders are paramount.
References
Agencies. (2013, November 15). Curfew imposed in Rawalpindi as violence claims eight lives. Dawn. http://www.dawn.com/news/1056541
Ahmad, M. (1998). Islamization and Sectarian violence in Pakistan. Intellectual Discourse, 6(1). https://doi.org/10.31436/id.v6i1.417
Ahmar, M. (2010). Sectarian conflict in Pakistan: Some lessons from the Irish experience. IPRI Journal, 10(1), 50-76.
Amjad, S. M. (2020). The Business of Religion and Politics: The Inevitable Oppression of the Ahmadis in Pakistani Regimes (Doctoral dissertation, Central European University).
Ansell, C., & Gash, A. (2008). Collaborative governance in theory and practice. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory: J-PART, 18(4), 543–571. https://doi.org/10.1093/jopart/mum032
Brewer, J. D. (1992). Sectarianism and racism, and their parallels and differences1. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 15(3), 352–364. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.1992.9993751
Cherney, A., & Hartley, J. (2017). Community engagement to tackle terrorism and violent extremism: challenges, tensions and pitfalls. Policing and society, 27(7), 750-763. https://doi.org/10.1080/10439463.2015.1089871
Fatima, Q. (2018). Pakistan's Religious Elite and Afghanistan: Antecedents. Special Issue 2018 J. Pol. Stud., 39. https://jps.pu.edu.pk/6/article/view/448
Grare, F. (2007). The evolution of sectarian conflicts in Pakistan and the ever-changing face of Islamic violence. South Asia (Nedlands, W.A.), 30(1), 127–143. https://doi.org/10.1080/00856400701264068
Grare, F. (2013). The evolution of sectarian conflicts in Pakistan and the ever-changing face of Islamic violence. In South Asia (pp. 131-148). Routledge India.
Hamrah, S. (2023). Contextualizing Sectarianism in the Middle East and South Asia: Identity, Competition and Conflict. Routledge India.
Hempton, D. (1996). Religion and political culture in Britain and Ireland: From the Glorious Revolution to the decline of empire. Cambridge University Press.
Ispahani, F. (2017). Pakistan’s descent into religious intolerance. In Routledge Handbook of Contemporary Pakistan (pp. 336-350). Routledge.
Jalalzai, M. K. (1992). Sectarianism in Pakistan. Lahore: A. H. Publishers.
Kalin, M., & Siddiqui, N. (2014). Religious Authority and the Promotion of Sectarian Tolerance In Pakistan. USIP. https://www.usip.org/sites/default/files/SR354_Religious-Authority-and-the-Promotion-of-Sectarian-Tolerance-in-Pakistan.pdf.
Kenar, N., & Shaw, I. S. (2020). Conflict & peace in international politics: Issues, actors, approaches. IJOPEC Publication Limited.
Khan, M., Haroon, M., Ullah, K., & Marwat, G. Q. K. (2025). Contemporary Sectarianism in Pakistan: The Kurram District Perspective. ASSAJ, 3(01), 586-600. https://assajournal.com/index.php/36/article/view/177
Long, R. D., Singh, G., Samad, Y., & Talbot, I. (Eds.). (2015). State and nation-building in Pakistan: Beyond Islam and security. Routledge.
Mabon, P. S. (2022, July 18). Dividing Lines - Introduction: Sectarianism as a boundary making process. The Foreign Policy Centre. https://fpc.org.uk/dividing-lines-introduction-sectarianism-as-a-boundary-making-process/
Mahsood, A. K., & Kamran, M. (2017). Dynamics of sectarian violence in Pakistan: Recommendations to the policy makers. Arts and Social Sciences Journal, 08(03). https://doi.org/10.4172/2151-6200.1000283
Mahsud, M. I. (2019). Religious militancy and tribal transformation in Pakistan: A case study of Mahsud Tribe in South Waziristan Agency [Unpublished PhD dissertation]. University of Peshawar.
Mahsud, M. I., & Aman, S. (2018). History of Religious Militancy in Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Criminology, 10(4). https://nja.pastic.gov.pk/PJCIS/index.php/PJC/article/view/34872
Mir, A. H., & Mir, R. (2006). Anthems of resistance: A celebration of progressive Urdu poetry. Roli Books Private Limited.
Mir, R., & Naquvi, M. A. (2016). Fighting the Takfiris: Building an inclusive American Muslim community by countering anti-Shia rhetoric in the USA. In Faith-based violence and Deobandi militancy in Pakistan (pp. 399-421). London: Palgrave Macmillan UK.
Misra, A. (2003). Rise of religious parties in Pakistan: Causes and prospects. Strategic Analysis, 27(2), 186-215.
Mohammad, N. (2022). Religious Freedom in Pakistan in 2022”. United States Commission on International Religious Freedom. https://www.uscirf.gov/sites/default/files/2022-08/2022%20Pakistan%20Country%20Update.pdf
Morrock, R. (1973). Heritage of strife: The effects of colonialist “divide and rule” strategy upon the colonized peoples. Science & Society, 37(2), 129-151. https://doi.org/10.1177/003682377303700201
Murphy, E. (2018). Islam and sectarian violence in Pakistan: The terror within. Routledge.
Qasmi, A. U. (2014). The Ahmadis and the politics of religious exclusion in Pakistan. Anthem Press.
Rahman, T. Class Struggles and Political Islam in Pakistan. In Routledge Handbook of Contemporary Pakistan (pp. 263-279). Routledge.
Siddiqui, K. A. L. I. M. (2022). British imperialism, religion, and the politics of ‘divide and rule’in the Indian-subcontinent. World Financial Review.
Suhaib, A. Q., & Adnan, M. (2020). Religious extremism and online radicalization in Pakistan. Islamic Studies, 59(2), 239-254. https://www.jstor.org/stable/27088390
Tett, L., Crowther, J., & O’Hara, P. (2003). Collaborative partnerships in community education. Journal of Education Policy, 18(1), 37–51. https://doi.org/10.1080/0268093032000042191
Umar, M. (2022). Police capacity and autonomy issues in sectarian crimes and enforcement of anti-terror laws in Punjab. Asian Journal of Comparative Politics, 7(3), 466-481. https://doi.org/10.1177/20578911211028307
Wehmeier, S. (2000). Oxford Advance Learner’s Dictionary. Tehran: National Library of Iran.
World Population Review. (2025). Rawalpindi Population.
Zaman, M. Q. (1998). Sectarianism in Pakistan: The radicalization of Shi ‘i and Sunni identities. Modern Asian Studies, 32(3), 689-716. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0026749X98003217
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Dr. Muhammad Irfan Mahsud, Taliya Ejaz
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
